Natural Language and Programming Language

Natural Language and Programming Language Programming Language Natural language such as English is the language, which is spoken and written for communication. The natural language consists of syntax, semantics, phonetics, etc. All natural languages have some fundamental rules, which are based on the structure of grammar. These grammatical rules are used by people in communication. Programming languages are used for developing computer programs, which enable a computer to perform some operations. The structure of these languages is based on some syntactic and semantic rules. Context-free, lexical and syntactic grammar may be used in Java programming (Dubey, 2006). The differences in the grammar of high level programming languages (e.g. Java) and natural language (e.g. English) are as follows: Natural languages are used for communication between people and programming languages enable human to interact with machines. Programming languages need a high degree of expertise, completeness and precision because computer can not think outside the statement while in speaking, some minor errors are ignored. The programming language syntax is not based on natural language grammar. Thus, the main difference in the grammar of high level language (Java) and natural language (English) is that natural language may be informal in speaking but not in written communication while the grammar of programming language follows specific syntax. Compiler A compiler is a specific computer program that converts the statements written in any high level (such as C, C++, etc) into the language that computer can understand, i.e. machine level language. The original program, which needs to be converted, is known as the source code and the generated machine language program is known as object code. The reason to convert a high level language program into machine code is to make an executable program. The operations performed by a compiler are: lexical analysis, preprocessing, parsing, semantic analysis, code generation and code optimization. Compilers are classified as native or cross compilers. The output of native compiler runs on the computer and operating system where the compiler is running and the output of cross compiler can be run on different platforms. Cross platform compilers are used for embedded systems (Aho, Sethi Ullman, 1986). The compiler group inputs characters into tokens because the original text can not be used by the data structure and it is very necessary to convert the source code into tokens. It makes the source code understandable for the computer. For example, an expression of ‘C’ language: sum=2+3; would be converted into tokens (such as ‘sum’ into IDENT, ‘=’ into ASSIGN_OP, ‘2’ into NUMBER, ‘+’ into ADD_OP, ‘3’ into NUMBER and ‘;’ into SEMICOLON). The compilation process analyses the syntax of programming language. Syntax analysis is further divided into tokenizing (grouping of input characters into tokens) and parsing (attempting to match the tokens to the syntax rules). In the process of compilation, lexical analyzer reads the source code and groups them into tokens (Ivantsov, 2008). A token is a categorized block of text (lexeme). Each token is a single unit of language, for example symbol name, keyword or an identifier. The lexical analyzer processes these lexemes according to their function by providing them meaning. This process is known as tokenization. After tokenizing, the tokens are sent for some other form of processing. The process may be considered a sub-task of parsing input. Parsing is the process of analyzing token sequence with respect to grammatical structure. Now, the data may be loaded for compilation. Thus, the compiler is a computer program, which converts the source code into machine readable form. This compilation process passes through various steps like lexical analysis, tokens, parser, etc. and makes the code available for the computer. References Aho, A. V., Sethi R. Ullman, J.D. (1986). Compilers: Princiles, Techniques, and Tools. New York: Addison-Wesley Dubey, A. (2006, December). Goodness criteria for programming language grammar rules. ACM SIGPLAN . 41(12), 44-53. Ivantsov, R. (2008, January 3). Irony .NET Compiler Construction Kit. Retrieved July 22, 2008, from http://www.codeproject.com/KB/recipes/Irony.aspx

The Agricultural Revolution Essay -- Essays Papers

The Agricultural Revolution The agricultural revolution of the nineteenth century was caused by many important factors. Before the revolution, people working in the farms were living entirely on what they could produce. Most farmers were extremely hesitant to make any changes in the methods they had been using for farming mainly because, although the payoff would be fairly large, if it didn't work, the mistakes could cost them their lives (Kagen). Farmers in the nineteenth century had several problems to deal with. One of the biggest problems was the fact that they were subject to the whims of nature. If there was a particularly bad storm, the crops for the year could be lost. If this happened, the family would be left with whatever food they had stored. Unfortunately, there was usually very little food left in storage, since they were required to pay taxes on the land they worked, and that was usually paid in grain. There was usually no extra food, other than what they stored for the win...

La Llorona: Prologue

The story of La Llorona has a lot of different variations.   There are some common elements found in each variation though.   Each story would have a ghost of a woman crying for her children.   The variations rest with how her children died and the name of the woman and her place of origin.   Some say she’s from Mexico and some say she’s from New Mexico or even Texas. Her name also varies, from Maria to Hilda.   Whatever the case, she always ends up looking for her dead children. La Llorona: Part 1 Once there was a beautiful woman called Maria Magdalena.   She hails from the southern town of Sta. Rosa where tradition runs deep in the veins of all that live within its boundaries, and farther beyond. Maria Magdalena comes from a poor farming family who has worked for generations with the land baron of Sta. Rosa, named Don Manuel Esquivel.   Maria Magdalena’s family has been indebted to Don Manuel’s family for generations and her generation was no different.   The land that Maria Magdalena tills belonged to Don Manuel’s family for as long as everybody can remember. Don Manuel has one child by the name of Jeremiah.   He is a few years older than Maria but he was more kind hearted than his father.   He was a good friend to Maria Magdalena’s older brother Juancho, and played with them when they were growing up.   It was no surprise then when one day, Jeremiah and Maria Magdalena found themselves in love with each other.   Despite warnings from her parents and her brother Juancho, Maria went on with her secret tryst with Jeremiah, and unknown to Don Manuel, Maria Magdalena soon got pregnant and bore twins – a girl and a boy. Immediately after giving birth to the twins, Jeremiah had to travel to a far-away city to finish his studies.   Maria Magdalena begged for him not to go but Jeremiah promised to be back for her and their children as soon as he gets his diploma, and he could provide them a good income and source of living, even without the help of his father, Don Manuel.   Maria Magdalena believed him and all his promises.   She faced the anger of her parents and shame of being an unwed mother.   Besides her own family, nobody knows who was the father of her children.   They were much too afraid that they would be banished from the land, if Don Manuel knows of their secret. After four long years of waiting, Maria Magdalena heard the news that Jeremiah was coming back to Sta. Rosa, and that a big feast would be held for his homecoming and graduation.   The whole town was invited and Maria wore the best dress she could afford, and dressed the twins so they could meet their father. At long last, the day of the feast came and the whole town of Sta. Rosa was bedecked with bougainvilleas and other decorations much like that of a fiesta.   Everybody was there.   It was clear though that there is a distinct difference in the rows of table in front of the presidential table and the tables in the back.   Rich families and politicos (politicians) were all seated in the tables bedecked with specially adorned table cloths while the ones at the back were made of ordinary bamboo, for the people belonging to poorer side of the town. A specially set stage was also provided in front of the presidential table facing the crowd for entertainments and announcements from the family of Don Manuel.   Finally, the long awaited arrival of Jeremiah’s car came.   The Mercedes Benz was given way and Maria Magdalena’s kids were all excited.   Even her parents and brother was there to share her excitement.   All they want was for Maria Magdalena and Jeremiah to finally get married so the kids could finally be legitimated.   To their shock and horror though, Jeremiah got out of the car with a beautiful woman in tow. Juancho steadied Maria Magdalena who was almost faint with despair.   She cautioned her not to make a scene because there might still be a good explanation for what they just saw.   However, after Jeremiah hugged his parents, he introduced his lady companion and whispered something to Don Manuel’s ears.   Don Manuel was beaming with pride.   He went onstage and got everybody’s attention for a special announcement.   He went on to say that his son not only brought home a diploma but a fiancà ©e as well. He announced the betrothal and forthcoming wedding of the engaged couple a month from the day of the homecoming celebration and invited everybody to come again and celebrate his family’s twin blessings.   Not long after, while everybody was celebrating and enjoying themselves with the free flowing good food and wine, Maria Magdalena’s family silently went on their way without saying a word to the family of the celebrant. Maria Magdalena almost went insane with grief.   She waited four long years for Jeremiah to fulfill his promises and bore the insults that came her and her family’s way when she bore the twins.   For three weeks, Maria Magdalena could hardly get up or eat.   Then one day, she just stopped crying. There was something different in her demeanor.   She looks so calm and there was a kind of peace and resolve as she went to meet with the town’s witch doctor.   She didn’t tell her brother or her parents where she went. This was something she has to do on her own.   Her parents were so surprised when she said she and the children will be attending the wedding celebration for Jeremiah and his new bride.   She said she had accepted her fate and just wants the children to see their father one last time and they would go on their way to another town far from Sta. Rosa to begin a new life without Jeremiah.   Despite their objections, Maria Magdalena was too determined to do what she had planned, so they could do nothing but stay behind.   Maria Magdalena also borrowed her brother’s horse and carriage.   She wanted to go alone with the children. On the appointed day of the wedding, Maria Magdalena looked so serene in a long white gown – it almost looked like a wedding gown – only simpler but nevertheless there was something ethereal about her.   Her children were also dressed in white as a flower girl and a ring bearer.   They were both holding a small woven basket.   The wedding celebrant’s table was positioned just so everybody could come round and greet the newlyweds.   It was then that Maria Magdalena brought her twin children around and Jeremiah couldn’t look at her straight in the eye.   He did say that she was as beautiful and the kids are wonderful. She just looked at him and she kissed the bride on the cheek.   Before she turned to go, she told Jeremiah to look at the twins closely for this is the last time he would be seeing them.   Jeremiah followed Maria Magdalena and begged for her to meet with him later.   Maria Magdalena relented and they agreed to meet on their secret trysting place 30 minutes later.   Maria Magdalena then proceeded to go with a mysterious smile on her face. At the appointed time, Jeremiah sneaked out of the celebration and went on to their secret place by the hill.   Maria Magdalena was there and the kids were in the carriage seemingly asleep.   Jeremiah approached and he tried holding Maria Magdalena but she stopped him and said, â€Å"I was truthful when I said to look closely at your children, for it will be the last time you will see them†. Jeremiah replied â€Å"Can’t we talk this out? I know I have wronged you, but they are my kids too.   I can provide support to them and still be a good father.†Ã‚   Maria shook her head slowly, tears falling in her cheeks.   She boarded the carriage and said, â€Å"It’s too late Jeremiah.   When you failed to fulfill your promise, I vowed I will always make true what I tell you. And I was truthful when I said that it would be the last time you will see your kids.   Do you see them?   They lay down so peacefully. They will never come to know you or the other half of the blood that runs through their veins come from you and your deceitful race!   You see Jeremiah, that small basket they were holding on to contained the most potent potion one could ever have.   I gave it to them after they met their father for the first and last time.   They shouldn’t suffer anymore waiting for you to come and get us.   They are at last at peace! And you, you shall not come to know our twin angels.   You do not deserve to know them. Goodbye Jeremiah! May you come to know the grief I had suffered through while waiting for you!†Ã‚   Maria Magdalena then struck the horse and went on with her two dead children.  Ã‚   Jeremiah stood there, shaken by what had just transpired and went down on his knees upon realizing that his children died by the hands of their own mother.   He cried and shook violently.   As the sun sets and darkness surrounded the hill that was once a witness to their promise of an undying love. La Llorona Part 2: A Brief Analysis of the La Llorona version In re-writing the version of La Llorona, I closely followed the character of an almost similar story of love and betrayal in the character of Medea (Bates, p 192). I have encountered the story of Medea a lot earlier than Llorona but as I was going through the various versions accredited to the southern legend La Llorona, the similarities struck me.   Hence, I applied some similar character traits of Medea by Euripedes (Coleridge) by also naming the character of the legend La Llorona (Hayes), to a name common to all the legend’s version, Maria, and adding a namesake after Medea, Magdalena. One of the similarities of Maria Magdalena and Medea is that of their passionate and almost obsessive devotion to their lovers, no matter what the cost.   Medea betrayed her own father and caused Pelias’ death by his own daughter’s hands (Bates and Coleridge).   Meanwhile, Maria Magdalena has shamed herself and her own family by being an unwed mother in a conservative and religious town (Sta. Rosa). Another similarity in the thematic flow of both stories is that Maria Magdalena was promised by Jeremiah that they will get married when he got back, so did Jason pledged his love to Medea.   Both Medea. and Maria Magdalena bore their lovers two children; both have done so without the benefit or blessing of a solemnified marriage. Similarly, both Jason and Jeremiah betrayed their promises of marriage. Like Medea, Maria Magdalena killed her children in retribution to her lovers’ betrayal.   They also both carried their dead children away in a horse carriage without giving their lover the benefit of burying their own children. The emphasis I stated in their similarities was done so to evoke not just for thematic purposes or display but more so to point out some possibilities that these actions are not limited to legends alone.   Both women were betrayed and deeply hurt by their lovers despite all sacrifices for the man of the life.   Both have shunned tradition just so they could prove their love for their man.   This is a universal theme common in most tragic love stories, and not limited to Medea by Euripedes or to La Llorona. What was uncommon though, that adds an almost perverted dignity to their characters is the murder of their children by their own hands.   It is a well known fact that mothers would give their lives for their children, and Medea and Maria Magdalena murdering their children has a two-pronged purpose. One is to cause extreme grief to their lovers in an act of revenge and the other is extreme sacrifice of their own love for their children just so they would be safe from further external harm.   Both the mother in Medea and Maria Magdalena would rather that their children die by their own hands than have strangers touch their babies. The impact of the actions of both Medea and Maria Magdalena reaches the core of one’s being.   It is painful to think or to even fathom of such possibilities.  Ã‚   Then again, sometimes, truth and its possibilities can be a lot more bizarre and stranger than fiction. Works Cited: Archer, Carol. Living with Strangers in the U.S.A.: Communicating Beyond Culture. Englewoods Cliffs: Prentice Hall, 1991. Bates, Alfred. â€Å"Medea: An Analysis of the play by Euripedes†. The Drama: Its History, Literature and Influence on Civilization, vol. 1. London: Historical Publishing   Company, 1906.   192-196. Coleridge, E.P. (trans.). Euripedes. Medea. [email  protected], 2004. Cordeiro, Paula, Timothy Reagan, and Linda Martinez. Multiculturalism and TQE. Thousand Oaks: Corwin, 1994. Hayes, Joe. The Weeping Woman (La Llorona). Teaching from a Hispanic Perspective. A Handbook for non-Hispanic Adult Educators.   June 4, 2007.                  

Improving Student Behavior With Behavior Contracts

Behavior contracts that describe appropriate replacement behavior consequences and rewards can really help students succeed, eliminate problem behavior and build a positive relationship with the students teachers. Contracts can eliminate the never-ending battle of wits that begins when a student engages the teacher and the teacher gets hooked. Contracts can focus the student and teacher on the good behavior rather than on the problems. A behavior contract can be a positive intervention to avoid the need to write a Behavior Intervention Plan. If a childs behavior merits a check in the Special Considerations section of the IEP, federal law requires that you conduct a Functional Behavioral Analysis and write a Behavior Intervention Plan.  If another intervention can prevent the behavior from getting out of control, you can avoid a lot of work as well as possibly needing to call an additional IEP team meeting. What Is a Behavior Contract? A behavior contract is an agreement between a student, their parent and the teacher. It spells out the expected behavior, the unacceptable behavior, the benefits (or rewards) for improving behavior and the consequence for failing to improve behavior. This contract should be worked out with the parent and the child and is most effective if the parent reinforces the appropriate behavior, rather than the teacher. Accountability is an important part of the success of a behavior contract. The components: Participants: Parent, Teacher, and Student. If both parents participate in the conference, more power to them! It is clearly an indication that they will support your effort. If you are in a middle school and other teachers besides the special educator will be enforcing the plan, they all need to sign off on the contract. Finally, the student should be consulted, especially about the rewards. What is a fitting reward for proving that they can improve their school behavior?The Behavior: Describing the behavior negatively (stop hitting, stop speaking out of turn, stop swearing) will focus on the behavior that you want to extinguish. You need to be sure that you are describing the replacement behavior, the behavior you want to see in its place. You want to be rewarding the student for the behavior that you want to see, rather than punishing the behavior you do not want to see. Research has proven conclusively that punishment doesnt work: it makes a behavior disappear temporarily, but th e minute the punisher leaves, the behavior will reappear. It is important that the replacement behavior serves the same function as the behavior you with to eliminate. Raising your hand doesnt replace calling out if the function of calling out is to get attention from peers. You need to find a behavior that will also provide appropriate attention.Data collection: How will you record when wanted or unwanted behavior has occurred? You may have a student self-monitoring protocol, or even a teacher checklist or teacher record sheet. Often it can be as simple as a three by five-inch note card taped to the desk, where the teacher can place a star or a check for appropriate behavior.The Reward: You need to be sure that you establish both the reward and the threshold for getting the reward. How many inappropriate behaviors are allowed and yet the student can still earn the reward? How long does the student need to exhibit the behavior before the student earns the reward? What if the student backslides? Does he or she still get to keep credit for the success that preceded it?Consequences: If the behavior you are targeting is problematic and can potentially inhibit the success not only of the student in question, but for the whole class, it needs to have consequences. The consequences also need to kick in when a certain threshold is met. In most cases, the success of exhibiting the replacement behavior, along with the praise and positive emphasis that should accompany the success, it shouldnt need to be instituted. Still, if a behavior disrupts the classroom and puts other children at risk, the consequence needs to be one that returns peace to the classroom and makes the other children safe. It may be to remove the child from the room, or move the child to the quiet corner.Signatures: Get everyones signature. Make a big deal about it, and be sure that you keep a copy of the contract handy, so you can refer to it when you want to either motivate or redirect the student. Instituting Your Contract Be sure that everything is in place before you begin the contract. How will the parents be informed and how often? Daily? Weekly? How will parents be informed of a bad day? How will you know for sure that the report has been seen? What is the consequence if the reporting form is not returned? A call to Mom? Celebrate Success! Be sure to let the student know when you are pleased when they are having success with their contract. I find that often the first few days are very successful, and it usually takes a few days before the there is any backsliding. Success feeds success. So be sure to let your student how happy you are when they do succeed.